Schools of Criminology:
Classical, Neo-Classical, Positive, Neo-Positive, Sociological and Typological
Schools
Introduction
Criminology is the scientific study of crime, criminals, and criminal behaviour. Over time, scholars have developed different schools of thought to explain why people commit crimes and how society should respond to them. These schools of criminology reflect changing ideas about human behaviour, responsibility, punishment, and reform. Each school emerged in a particular historical and social context and offered its own explanation of crime based on philosophy, science, or social conditions. The Classical, Neo-Classical, Positive, Neo-Positive, Sociological, and Typological Schools together provide a comprehensive understanding of crime by examining it from legal, psychological, biological, and social perspectives. Studying these schools helps in understanding the evolution of criminology and the development of a modern, humane, and effective criminal justice system.
The Classical
School of Criminology developed in the 18th century as a response to the harsh, cruel, and
arbitrary punishments that existed during that period. Before this school
emerged, punishments were severe and often depended on the personal will of
judges or rulers. The Classical School introduced the idea that laws should be
clear, fair, and equally applied. It is based on the philosophy that human
beings have free will and the
ability to make rational choices.
Ø Author/ Scholar
Beccaria
strongly opposed cruel punishments and argued for a rational and humane
criminal justice system. Jeremy Bentham developed the theory of utilitarianism, which states that
actions should aim to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number of
people. Both thinkers emphasized reason,
fairness, and deterrence.
Ø Main Principles
According to the Classical School, human beings are rational and free-willed, and they commit crimes after carefully weighing the pleasure gained from the crime against the pain of punishment. If the punishment is severe enough, a rational person will avoid committing the crime. Therefore, punishment should be certain, swift, and proportionate to the offence. The main purpose of punishment, according to this school, is deterrence, not revenge or cruelty.
Ø Contribution
The Classical School made significant contributions to the development of modern criminal law. It laid the foundation for the principle of proportional punishment, meaning the punishment should fit the crime. It also promoted equality before law, ensuring that all individuals are treated equally regardless of status. Many modern legal systems are influenced by the ideas of this school.
Ø Criticism
Despite its importance, the Classical School has certain limitations. It ignores individual differences such as age, mental condition, and social background. It also neglects social and psychological factors that influence criminal behaviour. Moreover, it assumes that all individuals have the same rational capacity, which is not true in reality, especially in the case of juveniles and mentally ill persons.
F
Neo-Classical School of Criminology
The Neo-Classical School of Criminology developed as a reform and improvement of the Classical School. While the Classical School strictly believed in free will and equal punishment, the Neo-Classical School tried to remove its rigid and mechanical approach. It recognized that all individuals are not alike and that certain personal conditions must be considered while deciding criminal responsibility and punishment.
· Jeremy Bentham,
·
William Blackstone
The Neo-Classical School does not have a single founder. It was developed by
jurists and legal reformers who modified the Classical School.
William Blackstone is an important thinker who emphasized
consideration of age and mental capacity of offenders. Jeremy
Bentham also influenced this school by supporting flexibility
and utility in punishment. The ideas of this school were further
shaped through judicial decisions and legislative reforms
introducing mitigating circumstances.
Ø Main Features
The Neo-Classical School accepted the idea of free will, but it also recognized important exceptions. It considered factors such as age, insanity, mental incapacity, and lack of understanding at the time of committing the offence. This school supported judicial discretion, allowing judges to consider individual circumstances before awarding punishment. Thus, punishment was no longer fixed and automatic.
Ø Contribution
The Neo-Classical School made significant contributions to criminal law. It introduced the concept of mitigating factors, which reduce the severity of punishment in deserving cases. This school laid the foundation for juvenile justice systems and the defence of insanity. By recognizing individual differences, it helped in humanizing the criminal justice system.
Ø Criticism
Despite its improvements, the Neo-Classical School has certain limitations. It is still largely punishment-oriented and does not focus enough on rehabilitation. Moreover, it lacks scientific analysis of crime and criminal behaviour, as it does not deeply study social or psychological causes of crime.
The Positive
School of Criminology emerged in the 19th century and marked an important shift from
philosophical ideas to the scientific study
of crime. Unlike the Classical School, which focused on free will and
punishment, the Positive School emphasized that crime is caused by factors beyond the control of the individual.
It believed that criminal behaviour can be studied scientifically by observing
and analysing criminals.
Ø Author/ Scholars
The
main authors of the Positive School are Cesare
Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo.
Lombroso is known as the “father
of modern criminology” and believed that some criminals are born with certain
physical traits.
Enrico Ferri
emphasized social and environmental factors in crime.
Garofalo
introduced the concept of natural crimes
and moral sense. Together, they developed the scientific foundation of
criminology.
Ø Main Principles
According to the Positive School, crime is the result of biological, psychological, and social factors. It rejects the idea that all criminals are born equal and capable of rational choice. Instead of focusing on punishment, this school emphasizes the study of criminal behaviour. The main aim is treatment and rehabilitation, not deterrence alone.
Ø Contribution
The Positive School made valuable contributions by introducing scientific methods, such as observation and analysis, into criminology. It shifted the focus from the crime to the criminal, leading to individualized treatment of offenders. This school also laid the foundation for modern penology, probation, parole, and reformative punishment.
Ø Criticism
Despite its contributions, the Positive School has been criticized for several reasons. Lombroso’s biological theories are now considered outdated and unscientific. The school places too much emphasis on determinism, suggesting that criminals have little control over their actions. It also underestimates the role of free will and personal responsibility.
The Neo-Positive School of Criminology is a modern extension of the Positive School. It developed to overcome the limitations of early positivism and to make the study of crime more balanced and practical. This school believes that criminal behaviour cannot be explained by a single factor and must be studied by combining different scientific approaches.
Ø Main Features
The Neo-Positive School combines biological, psychological, and sociological factors to explain crime. It uses advanced scientific techniques, such as psychological tests, medical examination, and behavioural analysis. The school strongly emphasizes individualized treatment, meaning that punishment and correction should depend on the personality and circumstances of each offender rather than applying the same punishment to everyone.
Ø Authors/ Scholars
· Sheldon Glueck,
· Eleanor Glueck,
· Karl Pearson,
· Hans Eysenck
The Neo-Positive School developed through the works of modern criminologists, psychologists, and sociologists rather than one individual. Important contributors include Sheldon Glueck, Eleanor Glueck, Karl Pearson, and Hans Eysenck, who used scientific and statistical methods to study criminal behaviour. Their studies emphasized personality traits, social environment, and psychological factors, supporting individualized treatment and rehabilitation.
Ø Contribution
This school contributed significantly to the development of probation and parole systems, allowing offenders to reform outside prison under supervision. It also introduced psychological profiling to understand criminal behaviour. The Neo-Positive School promoted rehabilitative and correctional methods, focusing on reforming criminals and reintegrating them into society.
Ø Criticism
Despite its progressive approach, the Neo-Positive School has some drawbacks. It often shows over-reliance on experts, such as psychologists and psychiatrists, which may reduce the role of courts. There is also a risk of ignoring legal safeguards and individual rights while focusing too much on treatment and expert opinion.
F
Sociological School of Criminology
The Sociological School of Criminology
explains crime as a result of the social
environment in which a person lives. Unlike the Classical and Positive
Schools, this school does not focus mainly on free will or biological factors.
Instead, it believes that crime is largely influenced by social conditions and group life.
According to this school, crime is not an individual problem but a social phenomenon.
Ø Authors/ Scholars
The important thinkers of the Sociological
School include Emile Durkheim, Gabriel
Tarde, and Edwin H. Sutherland.
Durkheim viewed crime as a normal
and inevitable part of society and linked it to social structure.
Gabriel Tarde emphasized the role
of imitation, stating that
people learn criminal behaviour by copying others.
Edwin H. Sutherland developed
the Differential Association Theory,
which explains that crime is learned through interaction with others.
Ø Main Principles
According to the Sociological School, crime is mainly caused by social conditions such as poverty, unemployment, broken families, lack of education, and peer influence. It believes that individuals learn criminal behaviour from their surroundings. Crime is therefore treated as a product of society, not merely an act of individual choice or biological defect.
Ø Contribution
This school made important contributions by introducing theories like Differential Association, which explain how crime is learned socially. It emphasized crime prevention through social reform, such as improving education, employment, and living conditions. The school also encouraged community-based corrections instead of excessive imprisonment.
Ø Criticism
Despite its usefulness, the Sociological School has certain limitations. It tends to neglect individual responsibility by blaming society for crime. Additionally, its principles are difficult to apply uniformly, as social conditions vary from place to place and person to person.
The Typological School of Criminology focuses on classifying criminals into different types based on their behaviour, nature of crime, and personal characteristics. This school believes that all criminals are not the same and that understanding their type helps in deciding appropriate punishment and treatment.
Ø Main Classifications
Under this school, criminals are classified into various categories. Habitual criminals are those who repeatedly commit crimes due to habit. Professional criminals commit crime as a means of livelihood, such as burglars and pickpockets. Occasional criminals commit offences due to circumstances like poverty, anger, or sudden temptation. White-collar criminals commit crimes using their position or profession, such as fraud and bribery. Juvenile delinquents are minors who violate the law due to social and environmental factors.
Ø Contribution
The Typological School is useful for offender profiling, as it helps understand the nature of criminals. It assists courts in deciding suitable punishment and treatment based on the type of offender. This classification is also helpful in correctional administration, such as planning rehabilitation programs and prison management.
Ø Criticism
Despite its usefulness, the Typological School has certain limitations. The classification is often rigid, as a criminal may not always fit into a single category. There is also overlapping of categories, since one offender may belong to more than one type at the same time.
Conclusion
The different schools of criminology together explain the nature and causes
of crime from various perspectives. The Classical
School emphasized free will, rationality, and deterrent punishment,
while the Neo-Classical School
introduced flexibility by considering individual circumstances such as age and
mental condition. The Positive and
Neo-Positive Schools shifted criminology towards a scientific and
reformative approach by focusing on biological, psychological, and social
factors influencing criminal behaviour. The Sociological School viewed crime as a product of social
environment and stressed social reform and prevention. The Typological School helped in classifying
criminals for better punishment and rehabilitation. Collectively, these schools
have contributed to a balanced, humane, and scientific criminal justice system.