Major Criminological Theories Explaining Crime
Synopsis
F Introduction
F Theories of Criminology
F Differential Association Theory
F Freudian Theory (Psychological Theory)
F Theory of Determinism
F Economic Theory of Crime
F Theory of Anomie
F Psycho-Analytical Theory
F Conclusion
Introduction
Criminology is the systematic and scientific study of crime, criminal behaviour, and the causes behind criminal activities. Over time, scholars and Scholars have developed various criminological theories to explain why individuals commit crimes. These theories analyze crime from different viewpoints such as social influence, psychological factors, economic conditions, and environmental circumstances. Understanding these theories is essential for identifying the root causes of crime and for developing effective systems of crime prevention, punishment, and rehabilitation. Together, criminological theories help in creating a balanced and humane criminal justice system.
F Theories of Criminology
Criminological theories attempt to explain why people commit crimes. Different Scholars have explained criminal behaviour from social, psychological, economic, and environmental perspectives. These theories help in understanding the causes of crime and in framing effective methods of crime prevention, punishment, and rehabilitation.
F Differential Association Theory
The Differential Association Theory was propounded by Edwin H. Sutherland. According to this theory, crime is not inherited or biologically determined, but learned through social interaction. A person becomes a criminal by associating with people who support or encourage criminal behaviour.
Sutherland explained that criminal behaviour is learned mainly through close and intimate social groups, such as family, friends, or peer groups. Individuals learn techniques of committing crime as well as the motives, attitudes, and justifications for such behaviour. When a person is exposed more too criminal ideas than law-abiding ideas, he is likely to commit crime. Thus, crime is treated as a socially learned behaviour, not a personal defect.
According to this theory, crime is not inherited and is not the result of physical or mental defects. Instead, a person learns to commit crime through social interaction. Just as individuals learn language, customs, and values from society, they also learn criminal behaviour from people around them. Therefore, crime is viewed as a social product, not a personal weakness.
Sutherland emphasized that criminal behaviour is mainly learned through close and intimate personal groups. These include family members, friends, neighbours, and peer groups. Formal sources such as books, movies, or media play a lesser role. When a person regularly interacts with people who approve of or practise criminal behaviour, the chances of learning crime increase.
The theory explains that individuals do not only learn how to commit a crime, but also learn the reasons and attitudes that justify criminal behaviour. This includes:
· Techniques of committing crimes
· Motives for committing crimes
· Attitudes and beliefs that support crime
· Justifications that make crime appear acceptable
Thus, crime is learned both practically and mentally.
A key idea of this theory is that criminal behaviour occurs when a person is exposed to more definitions favourable to crime than definitions unfavourable to crime. If a person hears and accepts more ideas that support breaking the law than ideas that respect the law, he is more likely to become a criminal. In simple words, bad company influences behaviour.
Sutherland also explained that learning crime depends on:
· Frequency – how often a person interacts with criminals
· Duration – how long the association lasts
· Intensity – how strong or important the relationship is
For example, close association with criminal friends for a long time has a stronger influence than brief contact with strangers.
The Differential Association Theory is important because it:
· Explains crime as a socially learned behaviour
· Highlights the role of family, friends, and environment
· Emphasizes prevention through social reform
· Influenced modern criminology and criminal sociology
It also forms the basis for many crime prevention programs focusing on education, family support, and positive peer influence.
The Differential Association Theory clearly shows that crime is not a result of birth or fate, but of social learning and environment. According to Sutherland, a person becomes a criminal because of continuous interaction with people who support criminal behaviour. Therefore, controlling crime requires improving social surroundings, strengthening families, and promoting positive associations. This theory plays a crucial role in understanding crime as a social phenomenon rather than an individual defect.
F Freudian Theory (Psychological Theory)
The Freudian Theory is based on the ideas of Sigmund Freud, who explained human behaviour through the structure of the human mind. According to Freud, the personality consists of three elements: Id, Ego, and Superego.
The Id represents basic instincts and desires, the Ego balances reality, and the Superego represents moral values. Crime occurs when the Id becomes dominant and the Superego is weak. In such situations, a person acts on impulses without considering moral or legal consequences. Criminal behaviour, according to Freud, is often the result of unconscious conflicts and emotional imbalance, especially formed during childhood.
Freud explained that human personality is made up of three parts:
· Id
· Ego
· Superego
The balance between these three elements determines a person’s behaviour.
The Id represents basic instincts, desires, and impulses such as hunger, aggression, and sexual urges. It operates on the pleasure principle, meaning it seeks immediate satisfaction without considering right or wrong. When the Id becomes too strong, a person may act impulsively and aggressively.
The Ego acts as a mediator between the Id and reality. It works on the reality principle and tries to satisfy the desires of the Id in a socially acceptable and lawful manner. A healthy Ego controls impulses and helps individuals behave responsibly.
The Superego represents moral values, conscience, and social rules learned from parents and society. It guides a person about what is right or wrong. A strong Superego prevents criminal behaviour by creating feelings of guilt and shame when wrong actions are considered.
According to Freudian theory, crime occurs when the Id dominates and the Superego is weak or underdeveloped. In such situations, the Ego fails to control impulses, and the person commits acts without thinking about moral or legal consequences. This imbalance leads to antisocial and criminal behaviour.
Freud believed that personality is largely shaped during early childhood. Emotional neglect, abuse, lack of parental care, or traumatic experiences can disturb personality development. Such experiences may weaken the Superego, making the individual more prone to criminal behaviour later in life.
The Freudian Theory is important because it:
· Explains crime through psychological factors
· Highlights the role of unconscious mind
· Emphasizes mental health and emotional balance
· Supports treatment and counselling over harsh punishment
The Freudian Theory explains crime as the result of psychological imbalance within the human personality. When the Id overpowers the Ego and Superego, individuals act on impulses without considering law or morality. Thus, criminal behaviour is viewed as a product of unconscious conflicts and emotional problems rather than mere intentional wrongdoing. This theory highlights the need for psychological treatment and rehabilitation in dealing with criminals.
F Theory of Determinism
The Theory of Determinism holds that human behaviour is determined by factors beyond individual control. According to this theory, a person does not commit crime out of free will, but due to circumstances such as heredity, environment, social conditions, or psychological influences.
Determinists believe that crime is the result of cause and effect, and that criminals are shaped by forces like poverty, poor upbringing, lack of education, or social inequality. This theory rejects the idea of complete free will and supports reformative and rehabilitative approaches rather than harsh punishment.
Determinism means that every action has a cause. In the context of criminology, it suggests that crime is the result of circumstances that influence a person’s life. Factors such as family background, economic condition, education, and social environment play a major role in shaping behaviour. Therefore, criminals are seen as products of their circumstances, not entirely responsible for their actions.
According to determinists, crime occurs due to the combined effect of several factors, such as:
· Heredity – genetic or inherited traits
· Environment – poor living conditions and bad surroundings
· Social conditions – poverty, unemployment, inequality
· Psychological influences – mental stress, emotional disturbance
These factors work together and push individuals towards criminal behaviour.
The theory views crime as a cause-and-effect phenomenon. If adverse conditions exist, criminal behaviour becomes a natural outcome. For example, a person raised in poverty with no education and constant exposure to crime may be more likely to offend. Thus, crime is not accidental but the result of continuous influence of negative conditions.
The Theory of Determinism rejects the idea of complete free will. It argues that individuals do not always have the freedom to choose between right and wrong because their choices are limited by circumstances. Hence, punishment alone cannot solve crime, as it ignores the real causes behind criminal behaviour.
Since crime is caused by external and internal factors, this theory supports reformative and rehabilitative punishment rather than harsh or retributive punishment. It emphasizes:
· Education and skill development
· Psychological treatment and counselling
· Social welfare and rehabilitation
The aim is to correct the causes of crime and help offenders become law-abiding citizens.
The Theory of Determinism is important because it:
· Explains crime scientifically
· Encourages humane treatment of offenders
· Supports rehabilitation over revenge
· Influences modern correctional policies
The Theory of Determinism views criminal behaviour as the outcome of various controlling forces rather than individual choice alone. By treating criminals as products of their environment and circumstances, the theory promotes reformative justice and social improvement as effective ways to reduce crime. It plays a significant role in shaping modern criminology and criminal justice systems.
F Economic Theory of Crime
The Economic Theory of Crime explains criminal behaviour as a result of economic conditions, especially poverty, unemployment, and unequal distribution of wealth. This theory is strongly influenced by Karl Marx and socialist Scholars.
According to this theory, economic inequality creates frustration and exploitation, pushing individuals towards crime for survival or improvement of living conditions. Crimes such as theft, robbery, smuggling, and corruption are often linked to economic hardship. The theory emphasizes that crime can be reduced by improving economic conditions, employment opportunities, and social welfare.
This theory is strongly influenced by Karl Marx and other socialist Scholars. Marx believed that society is divided into rich and poor classes and that the economic system often exploits the poor. According to this view, crime is not a moral failure of individuals but a result of unfair economic structures created by capitalism and inequality.
According to the Economic Theory, poverty and unemployment are major causes of crime. When people lack basic necessities such as food, shelter, education, and healthcare, frustration and desperation increase. In such situations, individuals may commit crimes to fulfil their needs or support their families.
The theory emphasizes that unequal distribution of wealth creates a feeling of injustice among the poor. When a small section of society enjoys luxury while a large population struggles to survive, it leads to anger, resentment, and social tension. This economic gap pushes individuals towards criminal behaviour as a form of protest or survival.
The Economic Theory links many crimes to economic hardship, such as:
· Theft
· Robbery
· Smuggling
· Corruption
· Black marketing
These crimes are often committed either to earn money illegally or to escape economic suffering.
According to this theory, crime is not an individual problem but a social and economic problem. Criminal behaviour is seen as a response to economic pressure rather than personal greed or moral weakness. Therefore, punishing offenders alone cannot eliminate crime.
The Economic Theory emphasizes that crime can be reduced by:
· Reducing poverty
· Creating employment opportunities
· Ensuring fair wages
· Improving education
· Providing social welfare schemes
By improving economic conditions, society can address the root causes of crime.
The Economic Theory is important because it:
· Highlights the link between crime and poverty
· Encourages social and economic reforms
· Supports preventive rather than punitive measures
· Influences welfare-oriented criminal justice policies
The Economic Theory of Crime explains criminal behaviour as a consequence of economic inequality and deprivation. It argues that crime arises when individuals are denied basic economic opportunities. Therefore, reducing crime requires improving economic conditions, ensuring social justice, and providing equal opportunities to all. This theory plays an important role in understanding crime as a product of social and economic structure rather than individual failure.
F Theory of Anomie
The Theory of Anomie was developed by Emile Durkheim and later expanded by Robert K. Merton. The term anomie means a state of normlessness, where social rules and values break down.
According to this theory, crime occurs when there is a gap between socially approved goals (such as wealth and success) and the legitimate means to achieve them. When individuals are unable to achieve success through legal means, they may resort to illegal methods. Thus, crime is seen as a result of social strain, frustration, and breakdown of moral values.
Anomie refers to a situation in society where people no longer clearly understand or follow social norms. During periods of rapid social change, economic crisis, or social instability, traditional values weaken. As a result, individuals feel confused, disconnected, and frustrated, which increases the chances of deviant and criminal behaviour.
According to Merton, society sets certain socially approved goals, such as wealth, success, status, and material comfort. At the same time, society also prescribes legitimate means like education, hard work, and lawful employment to achieve these goals. Crime occurs when individuals accept the goals but do not have equal access to legal means to achieve them.
When people are unable to achieve success through lawful means due to poverty, unemployment, or lack of opportunity, they experience strain and frustration. This pressure may push them towards illegal methods such as theft, fraud, or corruption to achieve social success. Thus, crime becomes a response to social inequality.
The Theory of Anomie treats crime as a social problem, not an individual moral failure. Criminal behaviour is seen as a natural reaction to unfair social conditions where opportunities are unequally distributed. Therefore, crime increases in societies with high inequality and weak social control.
The Theory of Anomie is important because it:
· Explains crime through social structure
· Links crime with inequality and lack of opportunity
· Highlights the role of social pressure and strain
· Influences crime prevention through social reforms
According to this theory, crime can be reduced by:
· Providing equal educational and employment opportunities
· Reducing economic inequality
· Strengthening social values and moral education
· Promoting social justice and welfare policies
The Theory of Anomie explains crime as the result of social strain and breakdown of norms. When individuals are unable to achieve socially approved goals through legal means, they may turn to crime. This theory emphasizes the need for social equality, moral stability, and fair opportunities to reduce criminal behaviour and maintain social order.
F Psycho-Analytical Theory
The Psycho-Analytical Theory is closely related to Freudian ideas but focuses more broadly on mental and emotional disorders. According to this theory, criminal behaviour is caused by unresolved emotional conflicts, childhood trauma, repression, and personality disorders.
Criminals may suffer from anxiety, frustration, or lack of emotional control, which leads to antisocial behaviour. This theory emphasizes the importance of psychological treatment, counselling, and therapy rather than punishment. It supports rehabilitation by addressing the root psychological causes of crime.
According to the Psycho-Analytical Theory, criminal behaviour arises from unresolved emotional conflicts and psychological problems. These problems often originate in early childhood experiences, such as neglect, abuse, lack of parental care, or emotional trauma. When these conflicts remain unresolved, they may later express themselves as antisocial or criminal behaviour.
The theory emphasizes that painful memories and emotions are often repressed into the unconscious mind. These repressed feelings, such as anger, fear, or frustration, do not disappear. Instead, they influence behaviour indirectly. Criminal acts may occur as an unconscious outlet for suppressed emotions or inner tension.
Criminals may suffer from emotional instability, anxiety, frustration, or lack of emotional control. Personality disorders and weak emotional regulation can lead individuals to react aggressively or irresponsibly in stressful situations. As a result, they may violate social and legal norms without fully understanding or controlling their actions.
The Psycho-Analytical Theory treats crime as a mental and emotional problem, not merely a legal issue. It views offenders as individuals in need of understanding and treatment rather than punishment. Criminal behaviour is seen as a symptom of deeper psychological issues.
This theory strongly supports psychological treatment, counselling, and therapy instead of harsh punishment. The aim is to:
· Identify underlying emotional problems
· Provide therapy to resolve inner conflicts
· Help offenders develop emotional balance
· Prevent future criminal behaviour
Rehabilitation is considered more effective than retribution.
The Psycho-Analytical Theory is important because it:
· Highlights the role of mental health in crime
· Emphasizes treatment and rehabilitation
· Influences modern correctional psychology
· Supports individualized correctional programs
The Psycho-Analytical Theory explains criminal behaviour as a result of deep-seated psychological and emotional problems. According to this theory, unresolved childhood trauma, repression, and emotional imbalance can push individuals toward crime. By focusing on counselling and therapy, the theory promotes a humane and reformative approach to criminal justice aimed at long-term crime prevention.
Conclusion
Criminological theories explain crime from social, psychological, economic, and environmental perspectives. They show that criminal behaviour is influenced by factors such as social interaction, mental imbalance, poverty, inequality, and breakdown of social norms. These theories emphasize that crime is not merely an individual fault but a social problem requiring prevention, rehabilitation, and reformative justice rather than harsh punishment.